"প্রেম মানুশকে শান্তি দেয়, কিন্তু সস্তি দেয় না।" “Paharpur” an important archaeological site in Bangladesh, situated in a village named Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of Naogaon district. The village is connected with the nearby Railway station Jamalganj, the district town Naogaon and Jaipurhat town by metalled roads. It is in the midst of alluvial flat plain of northern Bangladesh. In contrast to the monotonous level of the plain, stands the ruin of the lofty (about 24m high from the surrounding level) ancient temple which was covered with jungle, locally called Pahar or hill from which the name Paharpur is derived. The site was first noticed by Buchanon Hamilton in course of his survey in Eastern India between 1807 and 1812. It was next visited by Westmacott. Sir Alexander Cunningham visited the place in 1879. Cunningham intended to carry out an extensive excavation in the mound. But he was prevented by zamindar of Balihar, the owner of the land. So he had to be satisfied with limited excavation in a small part of the monastic area and top of the central mound. In the latter area he discovered the ruins of a square tower of 22 feet side with a projection in the middle of each side. The site was declared to be protected by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1919 under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. Regular and systematic excavation was jointly started here in 1923 by Archaeological Survey of India, VARENDRA RESEARCH SOCIETY of Rajshahi and Calcutta University. In the beginning the joint mission carried out the work with the financial help of SARAT KUMAR RAY of Dighapatia Zamindar family and under the guidance of DR Bhandarkar, Professor of Ancient History and former Superintendent of Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle. The work was confined to a few rooms at the south-west corner of the monastery and the adjoining courtyard. The work was resumed in 1925-26 by RD Banerjee, who excavated in the northern part of the central mound. From the next season (1926-27) onward excavation was carried out under the supervision of KN Dikshit with the exception of seasons of the 1930-32. In these two seasons GC Chandra conducted the excavation. In the last two seasons (1932-34) the work was carried out at SATYAPIR BHITA, a mound at a distance of 364m east of the central temple. During Pakistan period lower levels of a few monastic cells on the eastern wing were excavated by Rafique Mughal, but the results were never published. After independence the site was further brought under excavation by the Department of Archaeology of Bangladesh. The operations took place in two phases. The first phase was initiated in 1981-82 and continued in every season up to 1984-1985. The second phase was started in 1988-89 and continued in the next two seasons up to 1990-91. In the first phase excavations were aimed at establishing the three major building phases of the cells which Dikshit mentioned in his excavation report and discovering the information of early levels. But in the second phase the works were confined to clear the cultural debris from the courtyard of the monastery. Architectural remains: Pre-liberation expeditions have revealed the architectural remains of a vast Buddhist monastery, the SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA, measuring 274.15m N-S and 273.70m E-W. This gigantic establishment with surrounding 177 monastic cells, gateways, votive stupas, minor chapels, tank and a multitude of other structures for the convenience of the inmates, is dominated by a central shrine, conspicuous by its lofty height and architectural peculiarities. It is distinguished by its cruciform shape with angles of projection between the arms, its three raised terraces and complicated scheme of decoration of walls with carved brick cornices, friezes of terracotta plaques and stone reliefs. The monastery: The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, has high enclosure walls, about 5m in thickness and from 3.6m to 4.5m in height. Though the walls are not preserved to a very great height, but from their thickness and massiveness it can be assumed that the structure was storied commensurate with the lofty central shrine. In plan it consists of rows of cells, each approximately 4.26  4.11m in area all connected by a spacious verandah (about 2.43 to 2.74m wide), running continuously all around, and approached from the inner courtyard by flight of steps provided in the middle of each of the four sides. Somapura, Mahavihara, Paharpur There are in all 177 cells, excluding the cells of the central block in each direction; 45 cells on the north and 44 in each of the other three sides. The central block on the east, west and south sides is marked by a projection in the exterior wall and contains three cells and a passage around them, while in the north there stands a spacious hall. In the monastic cell No. 96 three floors have been discovered. Here the level of the last one (upper) is within 30cm from ground level, that of the second Im, while the third (lowest) is about 1.5m from the surface. It appears that this sequence has been generalized in all the cells of the monastery. However, the top most floors were removed while the second floor has been preserved. It is interesting to note that over this floor ornamental pedestals were built in as many as 92 rooms. Originally the main purpose of the rooms was to accommodate the monks of the Vihara, but the presence of such a large number of pedestals in the rooms indicates that they were used for worship and meditation in later construction phase. Ground plan of the Mahavihara Besides the main gateway to the north, there was a quadrangular subsidiary entrance through the northern enclosure near its eastern end. There was no arrangement of ingress on the southern and western sides, but possibly a small passage in the middle of the eastern block was provided for private entrance. Apart from the central temple in the courtyard of the monastery there are many other small building remains, which were built in different phases of occupation. The important ones are a number of votive stupas of various sizes and shapes, a model of the central shrine, five shrines, kitchen and refectory, masonry drain, and wells. Still there are some structures whose features could not be ascertained. The miniature model of the central shrine is located in the south of the central block of eastern wing of the monastery. In this model the plan has been perfected and made more symmetrical. Another important structure in this area is a flight of stairs 4m in width projecting for a distance of 9.75 m towards the courtyard of the frontage of the central block of the eastern wing. The last 6 steps are covered with stone blocks. In the southeastern part of the courtyard, near rooms 73 and 74, there are five shrines of varied shapes with a highly ornamented super-structure and a plan with a number of projections in which bold torus and deep cornice moldings are prominent. The most interesting thing in this group is a structure showing the shape of a 16-sided star. All the shrines are enclosed within a compound wall. To its north there is a big well with the internal diameter of 2.5m. The kitchen and the long refectory hall (bhojanashala) of the monastery are also situated in this area. A masonry drain in between the refectory and the kitchen has been traced to a length of over 46m northward. To its west there are three large wells in a row, which probably used to serve both the kitchen & refectory. There are some important structures enclosed within a regular brick wall that runs from the verandah against rooms 162 to 174 (in the northwest part of the courtyard). There are rectangular weep-holes at regular intervals through the enclosure wall, so that the water may flow out from inside the enclosure. The most important structure in this area is a square brick structure in which the lower part consists of three channels separated by walling and closed on the top by corbelled brick work; the purpose of the corbelled channels is not clear. Further west there is a well preserved well. Central temple: The central part of the vast open courtyard of the monastery is occupied by a lofty shrine, the remains of which is still 21m high and covers 27sqm area. It was built on a cruciform plan which rises in three gradually diminishing terraces. The shape of the terminal structure is still unknown to us. A centrally placed hollow square right at the top of the terraces provides the moot point for the conception of the whole plan of the spectacular form and feature of this stupendous monument. In order to relieve monotony and to utilize the colossal structure to serve its basic purpose, provision was made in the second as well as in the first terrace for a projection, consisting of an ante-chamber and a mandapa on each face, leaving out a portion of the whole length of the square at each of the four corners. The ambulatory passage with the parapet wall was made to run parallel to the outline of this plan. This arrangement resulted in a cruciform shape with projecting angles between the arms of the cross. An enclosure wall strictly conforming to the basement plan, with only a slight deviation near the main staircase, runs round the monument. There is ample evidence that this complete plan, from the basement to the top, along with different component elements, belonged to a single period of construction, but the later repairs, additions and alterations did not fundamentally affect the general arrangement and plan. Terracotta plaque, Base of the Buddhist Temple The basement wall of the temple is embellished with 63 stone bas reliefs which were inserted at most angles of the projection and at intervals in specially built recesses in the middle. The walls of the temple were built of well-burnt bricks laid in mud mortar. The plainness of the walls is relieved on the outer face by projecting cornices of ornamented bricks (twisted rope, stepped pyramid, lotus-petal pattern) and bands of terracotta plaques, set in recessed panels, which run in a single row all around the basement and in double rows around the circumambulatory passage in the upper terraces. Terracotta plaque, Central temple basement The temple-type at Paharpur has been frequently described as entirely unknown to Indian archaeology. The Indian literature on architecture, however, often refers to a type of temple, known as sarvatobhadra - a square shrine with four entrances at the cardinal points and with an ante-chamber on each side (chatuhshala grha). The temple at Paharpur, as now excavated, approximates in general to the sarvatobhadra type. Structures outside the monastery area: An open platform measuring 32m  8m is situated at a distance of about 27m from the outer wall of the southern wing. It runs parallel to the monastery. It stands about 3.5m above the adjoining ground level and is accessible from a raised pathway across room 102. This gangway is 5m in width. In between the gangway and the wall of the monastery there is a vaulted passage running parallel to the wall probably for the free passage of people outside the enclosure from one side to another. Its vaulted construction is of utmost importance. Balarama, Stone To our knowledge, it is one of the earliest and very rare examples of this type of construction, proving that vaults were known in ancient India before the advent of the Muslims. The entire southern face of the platform is marked with a series of water-chutes, each 30 cm in width and 1.30m in length occurring at interval of 1.2m. The channels are provided with fine jointed brickwork. It was used probably for the purpose of both ablution and toilet. Click This Link Buddhist God Havajra with Sakti, Stone Bathing ghat: There is a bathing ghat at a distance of 48m from the outer wall of the monastery towards the southeastern corner of the monastery. It is not parallel to the south wall of the monastery but is slightly inclined towards the north. On either side of it there is a parallel wall paved with brick-on-edge and concrete. The head of the ghat is laid with huge stone blocks along with brickwork, 3.6m in length. It descends in a gradual slope to 12.5m, where occurs a band of lime stone slabs. The bed of the ghat is also covered with sand which shows the existence of a stream close by. A tradition in relation to the ghat is still current among the local people that Sandhyavati, the daughter of a king named Mahidalan, used to bathe at the ghat every day and she is supposed to be the mother of Satyapir through immaculate conception. Click This Link Bronze Buddha Gandheshvari temple To the southwest of the ghat at a distance of about 12.2 m there is an isolated structure locally known as the Temple of Gandheshvari. The lotus medallion and bricks with floral pattern used in the front wall as also the mortar used between the joints of bricks sufficiently indicate that this building was erected during the Muslim period. It is a rectangular hall measuring 6.7  3.5m with an octagonal brick pillar base in the centre. There is a projection in the middle of the western wall which contains a small room, about l.5m square. It was used as a shrine and the four small niches on the sidewalls contained other objects of worship. In front of the door there is a circular platform 7.3m in diameter with a brick-on-edge floor. Post-Liberation excavations Apart from confirming Diskhit's findings in the cells, the post liberation period excavations brought to light two new and unexpected facts. Firstly, The remains of another phase of the monastery, probably the monastery of an earlier period, was discovered below Dikshit's original (?) monastery. It appears that in the earlier phase the monastery was of the same size and the alignment of the enclosure wall and front wall was also the same. They used the original monastery for quite some time and subsequently removed the earlier floors and destroyed the earlier partition walls and built new ones and thus they changed the arrangement of cells. In course of this reconstruction either at places they entirely destroyed the earlier partition walls and built completely new ones or they removed the earlier ones at their upper levels and kept the basal parts undisturbed over which they built the new ones. The earlier cells measured 4.87  3.96m internally. It clearly indicates that cells of the original monastery were larger than those of the upper monastery or Dikshit's first phase monastery. Thus in later periods the number of cells was increased. Secondly, in some limited areas the remains of structures and cultural objects (huge number of ceramics) were brought to light underlying the monastery as well as temple. Alignments of the walls bear no relation what so ever with those of the monastic plan or central temple. Due to very restricted exposure of these remains their nature could not be ascertained. It is worth noting that Dikshit discovered 3 periods in the monastic cells and 4 periods in the central temple. The recent excavations have discovered one more period in the monastery. Hence total 4 periods of the monastery correspond with those of central temple. Now, the question arises: which monastery was built by Dharmapala? Is it the recently exposed earlier monastery or the monastery discovered by Dikshit? Here it is interesting to note that, Dikshit believed that originally there was a Jaina monastery at Paharpur of which no traces have survived. This Jaina institution would then have been succeeded by the Somapura Mahavihara founded by Dharmapala in the end of the 8th century. Many subsequent authors have accepted Dikshit's hypothesis. Could it, therefore, now be suggested that these recently discovered remains underlying the monastery excavated by Dikshit belong to this former Jaina establishment. The ascertainment of it shall await further extensive excavation inside and outside the monastic complex. Movable objects Among the movable objects discovered from the site the most important ones are stone sculptures, terracotta plaques, copper plate, inscriptions on stone columns, coins, stucco images and metal images, ceramics etc. Stone sculptures As many as 63 stone sculptures were found fixed in the basement of the temple. All the images represent Brahmanical faith excepting the only Buddhist image of Padmapani. It appears rather strange that such a large number of Brahmanical deities were installed in this grand Buddhist establishment. The occurance of Brahmanical sculptures in a Buddhist temple indicates that they were gathered from the earlier monuments at the site or in the neighbourhood and fixed up in the main temple. These sculptures belong to different periods and can be classified into three distinct groups with respect to their style and artistic excellence. In the first group a considerable number of sculptures depict scenes from the life of Krisna. There are some other panels which depict the most popular themes of the Mahabharata and Ramayana and various other incidents from daily life of the rural folk. Their features and appearances are heavy and sometimes crude, without any proportion or definition of form. Though the art is technically crude and imperfect, but its social content is intensely human, highly expressive of liveliness, and artistically significant. Despite a general heaviness all through in the sculptures of the second group, there are some panels which are marked by lively action and movement. Thus it is a compromise between the first and third group, which maintains the eastern Gupta traditions. The third group is marked by the soft and tender modelling, the refinement and the delicacy of features, which are generally associated with Gupta classicism. Besides, there is a huge difference in attitude, subject matter, temperament and general technique between the first group and the other two groups. The sculptures of the other two groups generally depict cult divinities conforming to the dictates of the Brahmanical hierarchy. The stones used in them are greyish-white-spotted sandstone or basalt. Of all the loose stone images found in the excavations the most interesting is the fragmentary image of Hevajra in close embrace with his Shakti or female counter-part. Terracotta plaques The terracotta plaques play the most predominant part in the scheme of decoration of the walls of the temple. There are more than 2,000 plaques that still decorate the faces of the walls and about 800 loose ones have been registered. Majority of these plaques is contemporaneous with the building. No regular sequential arrangement has been followed in fixing these plaques on the walls. The sizes of the plaques vary in different section of the walls. Some are unusually big, measuring 40 x 30 x 6 cm and some are manufactured in a special size of about 18 cm square, but most of them are of a standard height, measuring 36cm x 22/24 cm. The representations of divinities of hierarchical religion are few and far between. The Brahmanical as well as the Buddhist gods are equally illustrated in the plaques. They are the principal varieties of Shiva and other Brahmanical gods like Brahma, Visnu, Ganesha and Surya. Buddhist deities, mostly of the Mahayana School, including Bodhisattva Padmapani, Manjushri and Tara are noticed here and there. Well-known stories from the Panchatantra are represented with evident humour and picturesque expressiveness. The fancy and imagination of the terracotta artists at Paharpur seems to be revealed mostly in the various movements of men and women engaged in different occupations. The artists were fully responsive to their environment and every conceivable subject of ordinary human life finds its place on the plaques. Similarly animals - snake, deer, lion, tiger, elephant, boar, monkey, jackal, rabbit, fish, and duck goose - have been presented in their typical actions and movements. But the representations of the flora are comparatively poor. The lotus and the common plantain tree are represented in the plaques. It appears that this art must have been very popular in Bengal and through these plaques we get a glimpse of the social life of the people of that period. Inscriptions The discovery of an inscribed copper-plate and some stone inscriptions has helped us to determine the chronology of the different periods. The copper-plate found in the northeast corner of the monastery is dated in 159 Gupta Era (479 AD). It records the purchase and grant by a Brahman couple of a piece of land for the maintenance of the worship of Arhats and a resting place at the Vihara, presided over by the Jaina teacher Guhanandin. This Vihara, which was situated at Vatagohali in the 5th century AD, must have been an establishment of local celebrity. It is worth mentioning here that the same name Vatagohali is found on a mutilated copper-plate found at Baigram dated 128 GE (448 AD). The mention of the name Vatagohali in a record from Barigram, which is about 30 km to the north of Paharpur, indicates that the two places Vaigrama and Vatagohali may not be for away from each other. The Guhanandi Vihara at Vatagohali must have shared the fate of other Jaina establishments in Pundravardhana, when anarchy reigned supreme in Bengal in the 7th century AD. At last peace was established and the Pala Empire was securely founded in Bengal in the 8th century AD and a magnificent temple along with a gigantic monastery was established by Dharmapala at Somapura. Dikshit believes that the monks in the new Buddhist Vihara might have been given the royal permission to appropriate the land belonging to the Jaina Vihara and kept the original charter in their possession. According to him 'this supposition can alone, explain the find of the plate among the ruins of the Buddhist Vihara'. A number of stone pillar inscriptions were discovered from the site which contain the records of the donation of pillars referring to either Buddha or the three jewels. The dates assigned to them belong to 10th and 12th century AD. All the donors have names ending in garbha, viz, Ajayagarbha, Shrigarbha and Dashabalagarbha, excepting one which shows a fragmentary record of some person whose name ended in nandin. It is possible that these indicate continuity or succession of monks at Paharpur Vihara. Pala Empire # Pala dynasty : • Gopala (750 - 770) • Dharmapala (770 - 810) • Devapala (810 - 850) • Mahendrapala (850 - 854) • Vigrahapala (854 - 855) • Narayanapala (855 - 908) • Rajyapala (908 - 940) • Gopala II (940 - 960) • Vigrahapala II (960 - 988) • Mahipala (988 - 1038) • Nayapala (1038–1055) • Vigrahapala III (1055–1070) • Mahipala II (1070–1075) • Shurapala II (1075–1077) • Ramapala (1077–1130) • Kumarapala (1130–1140) • Gopala III (1140–1144) • Madanapala (1144–1162) • Govindapala (1162–1174) Dharmapal : Dharmapala the second and considered to be the greatest ruler of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Son and successor of Gopala, the founder of the dynasty, Dharmapala inaugurated the period of ascendancy of the Palas. The most important event of his long reign (c 781-821 AD) was the tripartite struggle for the supremacy over madhyadesha of northern India that involved the Palas in a long drawn struggle with the Rastrakutas of Deccan and the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Malava and Rajsthana. Northern India with its traditional central seat at Kanauj felt a rush on the part of these three powers to fill up the vacuum that was created after it was swept over by Yashovarman and Lalitaditya. Dharmapala felt powerful enough to venture out in north Indian politics and did have some success, which found expression in the Pala copperplates in an eulogistic tone. It is difficult to follow the exact course of this struggle in strict chronological order. The first phase of the tripartite struggle, which took place round about 790 AD, opened with a clash between Dharmapala and Vatsaraja, the Pratihara king, resulting in the defeat of the former, and later on a common enemy from the Deccan, the Rastrakuta king Dhruva Dharavarsa, defeated both of them. Dhruva, however, could not consolidate his victory, as he had to return to the south to save his own kingdom. Thus Dharmapala's bid for the empire in northern India did not meet with success and the Pala records are understandably silent about this phase of struggle. Khalimpur Copperplate of Dharmapala The Pratiharas took some time to recoup their power and the Rastrakutas could not hold out owing to various reasons that caused their retreat. Dharmapala was left alone to spread his influence over madhyadesha. He succeeded in placing his protege, Chakrayudha, on the throne of Kanauj, though possibly for a short time. This success of the Pala king found mention in the Pala records in an ornate form through the pen of the court poets. To crown all these eulogistic verses is the 12th verse of Dharmapala's own Khalimpur copperplate, which runs as follows: 'With a sign of his gracefully moved eyebrows he installed the illustrious king of Kanykubja, who readily was accepted by the Bhoja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara and Kira kings bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling, and for whom his own golden coronation jar was lifted up by the delighted elders of Panchala'. Scholars taking this verse too literally have followed suit with the court poet in ascribing credit to Dharmapala for conquering all those places and becoming the uttarapathasvami. However, Dharmapala's supremacy over all these powers is not confirmed by other sources. It is likely that Dharmapala had some success and may have pushed his sphere of influence as far as Kanauj, where he successfully placed his own protege on the throne. In describing this success of their royal patron the court poets let loose their imagination and put in all the names of western kingdoms they could think of, in conformity to the metre of the verses. The vision of a vast north Indian empire, right up to the northwestern corner of the subcontinent, seems more reasonable as a poetic dream than as a fact. It can hardly be accepted that Dharmapala became the sole undisputed monarch of northern India. All his offensive campaigns and success must have taken place approximately between 790 and 800 AD, i.e. between the retreat of Dhruva and the reappearance of Govinda III. With the rise of Nagabhatta II, son and successor of Pratihara Vatsaraja, started the second phase of the tripartite struggle. Nagabhatta defeated Chakrayudha, who took shelter with Dharmapala. Subsequently Nagabhatta also defeated Dharmapala in a battle near Munger. The Rastrakuta king Govinda III appeared in the north and inflicted a severe defeat on Nagabhatta, and Dharmapala and Chakrayudha surrendered to him of their own. But Govinda III, like his father, had to return to the Deccan (801 AD), and from then onwards Dharmapala may have passed his time in peace. It is not unlikely that he succeeded in re-establishing his supremacy over parts of northern India, though it is not known definitely. Thus it can be said that Dharmapala launched Bengal on a career of aggrandizement. He succeeded for a time in pushing forward his influence as far as Kanauj. Though he faced reverses at the hands of the Pratiharas and the Rastrakutas, he managed to survive. Bengal saw under his leadership prosperity and success, which must have elated the court scribes to exaggerate these deeds. Dharmapala was a Buddhist. He is credited with the foundation of the VIKRAMASHILA monastery, which was one of the most important Buddhist seats of learning in India from the 9th to the 12th centuries AD. SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA at PAHARPUR was also a creation of Dharmapala. He was equally enthusiastic in his patronage of the Brahmanical shrines. He is said to have been 'conversant with the precepts of the shastras' and he made 'the castes conform to their proper tenets'. He may be regarded to have initiated a policy of religious toleration and mutual co-existence of different religions, which was one of the glorious legacies of Pala rule in Bengal. A glimpse of Bengal under Dharmapala is reflected in the accounts of the Arab geographers and merchants like Sulaiman (d 851 AD), Ibn Khurdadhbeh (d 912 AD), Idrisi (b end of 11th century AD) and Masudi (d 956 AD) who mention that the king of Bengal was engaged in a struggle with the Rastrakutas (Balhara) and the Gurjaras (Jurz). All of them mention about Bengal's flourishing sea-trade in the 9th and 10th centuries in which the Arabs had a fairly dominant role. Hudud-ul-Alam, a Persian work (982-83 AD), records that Dharamapala (Dahum), did not regard anybody as greater than himself and had an army of 300,000. • Origin of the Palas : The Ramacharitam of Sandhyakar Nandi attests that Varendra (or North Bengal) was the fatherland (Janakabhu) of the Palas. In the Bangarh Copperplate inscription of Mahipala I, it has been stated that Mahipala recovered his ancestral homeland (Rajyam Pitram) from the usurpers (which was until that time occupied by the Kamboja-Pala Kingdom). Caste The caste origin of the Palas is not clearly stated in any of the numerous Pala records. The Khalimpur copper plate inscription of Dharmapala, the second Pala emperor, states that Gopala I was a son of a warrior (Khanditarat) named Vapyata, grandson of a highly educated man (Saryavidyavadat) named Dayitavishnu, and he himself was elected to the throne of Bengal. The Kamauli copper plate inscription of king Vaidyadeva of Kamarupa (Assam) connects the Palas to the Kshatriyas of "Mihirasya vamsa" (Surya lineage).[3][4][5][6][7][8] The Ballala-Carita says that "The Palas were low-born Kshatriyas", a claim reiterated by the historian Taranatha in his "History of Buddhism in India" as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala (both written in the 16th century CE). The Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya. As Gopala I was a Buddhist, he was also branded as a Śudra king in some sources.[9][10][11][12][13] According to Manjuśree Mūlakalpa, Gopala I was a Śudra[citation needed]. Arabic accounts tell us that Palas were not kings of noble origin[citation needed] [not of aryan origin?]. According to Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (in Ain-i-Akbari), the Palas were Kayasthas. There are even accounts that claim Gopala may have been from a Brahmin lineage.[14] • Matsyanyaya and the ascendancy of the Palas : After Shashanka's reign, Bengal was shrouded in obscurity and was shattered by repeated invasions. During the reign of Manava, Bengal was invaded and divided between Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman. In 730 CE Jayavardhana of the Shaila Dynasty from Central India invaded Bengal and killed the king of Pundra Kingdom. Yasovarman (725–752) of Kannauj killed the king of Magadha and Gauda. Later Lalitaditya Muktapida (724–760) of Kashmir who defeated Yasovarmana invaded Bengal. Sri Harsha of Kamarupa conquered Anga, Vanga, Kalinga and Odra. The social and political structure of Bengal was devastated. According to Tāranātha: Every single Brahman, every Kshatriya, every Elite became all powerful in their areas and surrounding regions. This condition has been described by him as Matsyanyaya (Eating of small fish by the big fish) or the Dark Age of Bengal. Disgusted at the situation the desperate people of Bengal made a bold move which marked a glorious period in the history of the sub-continent. They elected Gopala, a popular military leader, as their king by a democratic election which was probably the only democratic election in medieval India. • Religion : Nalanda University is considered one of the first great university in recorded history, reached its height under the Palas. After the Buddhist king Harsha Vardhana, Buddhism faced the possibility of extinction[citation needed]. The Palas emerged as the champion of Buddhism, and they patronized Mahayana Buddhism. The Palas supported the Universities of Vikramashila and Nalanda which became the premier seats of learning in Asia. The Nalanda University which is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas.[15] The Palas were responsible for the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and the Malay archipelago. Bengal became famous in the Buddhist world for the cultivation of Buddhist religion, culture and other knowledge in the various centres that grew under the patronage of the Pala rulers.[16] Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to the Far-East and propagated Buddhism. A few outstanding individuals among them are Shantarakshit, Padmanava, Dansree, Bimalamitra, Jinamitra, Muktimitra, Sugatasree, Dansheel, Sambhogabajra, Virachan, Manjughosh and many others. But the most prominent was Atish Dipankar Srigyan who reformed Buddhism in Tibet after it had been destroyed by king Langdharma. Although the Palas were Buddhists, they had also given support to Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math.[17] Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu, Siva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule. • Pala Literature : The Pala Empire had an enormous influence on the development of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism, today practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, Russia and China. This image of the Buddha from an Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita manuscipt dates to the late Pala period, from the Nalanda University. Upon the destruction of Nalanda University and the Pala Empire, Pala monks fled to Buddhist friendly Tibet, and today that country traces much of it's Buddhist lineage to this exodus, acting as a time capsule that preserves thousands of Indian sutras in Tibetan. The proto-Bangla language was born during the reign of the Palas. The Buddhist texts of the Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. This Proto-Bangla language was used as the official language in Tibet, Myanmar, Java and Sumatra. Texts on every aspect of knowledge were compiled during the Pala Rule. On philosophy: Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta, Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva; On Medicine: Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurvedidvipika, Bhanumati, Shabdachandrika, Dravya Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Datta; Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda, Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara; Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena; Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya; Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana etc. Atisha compiled more than 200 texts. The great epic Ramacharitam written by Sandhyakar Nandi, the court poet of Madanapala was another masterpiece of the Pala literature. The Pala copperplate inscriptions were of excellent literary value. This distinctive inscriptions were called Gaudiya Style. • Pala art and architecture : The most brilliant side of the Pala Empire was the excellence of its art and sculptures. Palas created a distinctive form of Buddhist art known as the "Pala School of Sculptural Art." The gigantic structures of Vikramshila Vihara, Odantapuri Vihara, and Jagaddala Vihara were masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of Bakhtiar Khilji as fortified castles and were demolished. The Somapura Mahaviharaa, a creation of Dharmapala, at Paharpur, Bangladesh, is the largest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian subcontinent, and has been described as a "pleasure to the eyes of the world." UNESCO made it World Heritage Site in 1985. Sompur Bihara, also built by Dharmapala, is a monastery with 21 acre (85,000 m²) complex has 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. In 1985, the UN included the Sompur Bihara site in the world Cultural Heritage list. The Pala architectural style was followed throughout south-eastern Asia, China, Japan and Tibet. Bengal rightfully earned the name "Mistress of the East". Dr. Stella Kramrisch says: "The art of Bihar and Bengal exercised a lasting influence on that of Nepal, Burma, Ceylon and Java". Dhiman and Vittpala were two celebrated Pala sculptors. About Sompura Mahavihara, Mr. J.C. French says with grief: "For the research of the Pyramids of Egypt we spend millions of dollars every year. But had we spent only one percent of that money for the excavation of Sompura Mahavihara, who knows what extraordinary discoveries could have been made."---"The Art of the Pala Empire of Bengal," p. 4. • Pala foreign relations : Palas came in contact with distant lands through their conquests and trades. The Sailendra Empire of Java, Sumatra and Malaya was a colony of the Palas. Devapala granted five villages at the request of the Sailendra king Balputradeva of Java for the upkeeping of the matha established at Nalanda for the scholars of that country. The Prime minister of the Balputradeva Kumar Ghosha was from Gauda. Dharmapala who extended his empire to the boundary of the Abbasid Empire and had diplomatic relations with the caliph Harun Al-Rashid.[19] Coins of Harun-al-Rashid have been found in Mahasthangarh. Palas maintained diplomatic and religious relation with Tibet. During the military expeditions of the Pala kings the Pala generals would establish kingdoms of their own in Punjab and Afghanistan. Recent discoveries in the Punjab hills showed the influence of the Pala Dynasty. There is a strong and continuous tradition that the ruling families in certain states are descended from the "Rajas of Gaur in Bengal". These states are Suket, Keonthal, Kashtwar and Mandi. In the ancient Rajput states tradition has immense force and accuracy. Of Kashtwar it is related that Kahan Pal — the founder of the state — with a small band of followers arrived in the hills in order to conquer a kingdom for himself. He is said to have come from Gaur, the ancient capital of Bengal and to have been a cadet of the ruling family of the place. The demise of the Turkshahi rule in Gandhar and the rise of the Hindushahi dynasty in that region might have connection to the invasion of the Palas in that region. • Pala armed forces : The Palas of Bengal in comparison with other contemporary empires such as the Rashtrakutas of Deccan and the Pratiharas of Malwa in the focal point of "Kanauj Triangle." Palas had fourfold army consisting of: infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots. In the copperplates of Vatsaraja Dharmapala had been mentioned as the owner of unlimited number of horses, elephants and chariots. It is amazing that when the use of chariots had been backdated in India and other parts of the world the kings of Bengal still depended on four-horsed heavy chariots. Being a riverine land and swarthy climate Bengal was not good enough for breeding quality war-horses. So the Palas had to depend upon their vassal kings for war horses. Pala copperplate inscriptions reveal that mercenary forces were recruited from the Kamboja, Khasa, Huna, Malwa, Gujarat, and Karnata. The Kamboja cavalry were the cream of the Pala army who would later become as powerful as the Janissary army of the Ottoman Empire. The Kamboja forces maintained smaller confederates (Sanghas) among themselves and were staunch follower of their commander. Palas had the army divided into following posts: Senapati or Mahasenapati (General) controlling foot soldiers, cavalry, soldiers riding elephants and camels, and the navy, and the various army posts like Kottapala (Fort guards) and Prantapala (Border guards). Palas had a huge army and the legend of "Nava Lakkha Shainya" (Nine lac soldiers) were popular during the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala. According to Hudud al-Alam a Persian text written in 982–983 Dharmapala possessed an army of 300,000 soldiers. According to Sulaiman the Arab traveller Devapala set out for his every military expedition with an army of 50,000 elephants and his army had 10,000–15,000 slaves for the maintenance and caretaking of his armies.   Recent News: 1. : Archaeologists find structures older than Pala Era in Bangladesh AGENCIES, Mar 15, 2008, 04.35pm IST “DHAKA: Archaeologists have found two ancient brick-built structures at the Paharpur world heritage site in Bangladesh, which they believe belonged to a period even earlier than the site's known time, the Pala Era. The media stated that the brick-built structures were found under the foundation of the main temple at Paharpur. Archaeology Department Director Dr Md Shafiqul Alam said that another structure was found outside the temple area. Mahbubul Alam, assistant custodian of Paharpur site, said that an ancient broken terracotta piece was found under the basement of the temple near the newly discovered structure while a decorated brick was found in the lower portion of the northern side of the temple. Meanwhile, archaeologists dug out another brick-built structure from an earth-filled base on top of the 72-feet high temple. They believe that the structure was made for beautification.” Place: “Naogaon” district (Rajshahi division) with an area of 3435.67 sq km, is bounded by West Bengal of India on the north, Natore and Rajshahi districts on the south, Joypurhat and Bogra districts on the east, Nawabganj district and West Bengal (India) on the west. Annual temperature: maximum 37.8°C and minimum 11.2°C; annual rainfall 1862 mm. Main rivers are Atrai, Punarbhaba, little Jamuna, Nagar, Chiri and Tulsi Ganga. Guta, Mansur and Dighali beels are notable. Naogaon (Town) a municipal town has an area of 37.03 sq km. It consists of 9 wards and 62 mahallas. The town has a population of 123101; male 51.78%, female 48.22%; literacy rate among the town people is 48.5%. It has one dakbungalow and one rest house. Question-Answer • Why the Buddhists have gone out from India? Buddhism has spread outside of India through two main traditions; Theravada which extended south and east and now has widespread following in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, and Mahayana, which diffused first west, then north and later east throughout East Asia. Both traditions have since spread throughout the world, mainly in North America and Europe. The practice of Buddhism as a distinct and organized religion declined from the land of its origin in around 13th century, but not without leaving a significant impact. Hindus continued to absorb Buddhist practices and teachings, such as meditation and the renunciation of the material world. Buddhist practice is most common in Himalayan areas like Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. Buddhism has reemerged as a major faith in India in the past century, thanks to its adoption by many Indian intellectuals, the migration of Buddhist Tibetan exiles, and the mass conversion of hundreds of thousands of Hindu Dalits. Decline of Buddhism in India: The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various reasons. Regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually patronized all the important sects relatively even-handedly.[28] This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and protecting previously donated property by leaving them exempt from taxation. Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but this correlated with periods in which the state also gave its support and protection. In the case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of institutional organization and the dependence of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of massive propertied foundations.[29] The gradual expansion in the scope and authority of caste regulations shifted political and economic power to the local arena, reversing the trend of centralization.[30] The caste system gradually expanded into secular life as a regulative code of social and economic transactions.[30] Brahmans developed a new relationship with the state. It became the duty of political officials to enforce the caste regulations written by Brahmans.[30] Caste regulations grew over a long period of time. As they did, states gradually lost control of landed revenue. A key transition was the downfall of the Guptas. Indian social structure developed in a manner opposite to that of China or Rome, where administration of law was dominated by government officials. Instead, Brahmans became hereditary monopolists of the law in a series of weak, ephemeral states.[31] Brahmans came to regulate more and more aspects of public life, and collected fees for the performance of their rituals.[30] Caste law, administered by Brahmans, was built up to control all local economic production and much of its distribution.[32] The transformation of Brahman priests to linchpins of the caste system transformed the functioning property system.[30] The political ascendancy of Hinduism and its displacement of Buddhism's political and social base came by this indirect route.[31] Orthodox Brahmins were now capable of cutting off the flow of material resources upon which institutional Buddhism depended. Parallel developments that led to the decrease in the influence of Buddhism were the institution of rival Hindu temples, which were an innovation of the bhakti movement, and eventually orders of Hindu monks. These undercut Buddhist patronage and popular support.[33] A continuing decline occurred after the fall of the last Empire supportive of Buddhism: the Pala dynasty in the 12th century CE. This continued with the later destruction of monasteries by the new Muslim conquerors[34] and their attempts to spread Islam in the region.